To start, store a public SSH key on GitHub. This is validated against a locally stored private key that Git uses to validate and establish a connection. GitHub SSH keys are created with the ssh-keygen tool that comes prepackaged with updated versions of Windows.
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Another tool that you can use to generate key pairs is ssh-keygen, which is a tool included in the SSH suite that is specifically used to create and manage SSH keys. As SSH keys are standard asymmetrical keys we can use the tool to create keys for other purposes.
The option -f sets the name of the output file. If not present, ssh-keygen will ask the name of the file, offering to save it to the default file /.ssh/id_rsa. The tool always asks for a password to encrypt the key, but you are allowed to enter an empty one to skip the encryption.
The public key saved by ssh-keygen is written in the so-called SSH-format, which is not a standard in the cryptography world. It's structure is ALGORITHM KEY COMMENT, where the KEY part of the format is encoded with Base64.
A block cipher is so-called because the scheme encrypts one fixed-size block of data at a time. In a block cipher, a given plaintext block will always encrypt to the same ciphertext when using the same key (i.e., it is deterministic) whereas the same plaintext will encrypt to different ciphertext in a stream cipher. The most common construct for block encryption algorithms is the Feistel cipher, named for cryptographer Horst Feistel (IBM). As shown in Figure 3, a Feistel cipher combines elements of substitution, permutation (transposition), and key expansion; these features create a large amount of "confusion and diffusion" (per Claude Shannon) in the cipher. One advantage of the Feistel design is that the encryption and decryption stages are similar, sometimes identical, requiring only a reversal of the key operation, thus dramatically reducing the size of the code or circuitry necessary to implement the cipher in software or hardware, respectively. One of Feistel's early papers describing this operation is "Cryptography and Computer Privacy" (Scientific American, May 1973, 228(5), 15-23).
Data Encryption Standard (DES): One of the most well-known and well-studied SKC schemes, DES was designed by IBM in the 1970s and adopted by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) [now the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)] in 1977 for commercial and unclassified government applications. DES is a Feistel block-cipher employing a 56-bit key that operates on 64-bit blocks. DES has a complex set of rules and transformations that were designed specifically to yield fast hardware implementations and slow software implementations, although this latter point is not significant today since the speed of computer processors is several orders of magnitude faster today than even twenty years ago. DES was based somewhat on an earlier cipher from Feistel called Lucifer which, some sources report, had a 112-bit key. This was rejected, partially in order to fit the algorithm onto a single chip and partially because of the National Security Agency (NSA). The NSA also proposed a number of tweaks to DES that many thought were introduced in order to weaken the cipher; analysis in the 1990s, however, showed that the NSA suggestions actually strengthened DES, including the removal of a mathematical back door by a change to the design of the S-box (see "The Legacy of DES" by Bruce Schneier [2004]). In April 2021, the NSA declassified a fascinating historical paper titled "NSA Comes Out of the Closet: The Debate over Public Cryptography in the Inman Era" that appeared in Cryptologic Quarterly, Spring 1996.
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES): In 1997, NIST initiated a very public, 4-1/2 year process to develop a new secure cryptosystem for U.S. government applications (as opposed to the very closed process in the adoption of DES 25 years earlier). The result, the Advanced Encryption Standard, became the official successor to DES in December 2001. AES uses an SKC scheme called Rijndael, a block cipher designed by Belgian cryptographers Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen. The algorithm can use a variable block length and key length; the latest specification allowed any combination of keys lengths of 128, 192, or 256 bits and blocks of length 128, 192, or 256 bits. NIST initially selected Rijndael in October 2000 and formal adoption as the AES standard came in December 2001. FIPS PUB 197 describes a 128-bit block cipher employing a 128-, 192-, or 256-bit key. AES is also part of the NESSIE approved suite of protocols. (See also the entries for CRYPTEC and NESSIE Projects in Table 3.)
RC2: A 64-bit block cipher using variable-sized keys designed to replace DES. It's code has not been made public although many companies have licensed RC2 for use in their products. Described in RFC 2268.
RC4: A stream cipher using variable-sized keys; it is widely used in commercial cryptography products. An update to RC4, called Spritz (see also this article), was designed by Rivest and Jacob Schuldt. More detail about RC4 (and a little about Spritz) can be found below in Section 5.13.
Threefish: A large block cipher, supporting 256-, 512-, and 1024-bit blocks and a key size that matches the block size; by design, the block/key size can grow in increments of 128 bits. Threefish only uses XOR operations, addition, and rotations of 64-bit words; the design philosophy is that an algorithm employing many computationally simple rounds is more secure than one employing highly complex — albeit fewer — rounds. The specification for Threefish is part of the Skein Hash Function Family documentation.
Anubis: Anubis is a block cipher, co-designed by Vincent Rijmen who was one of the designers of Rijndael. Anubis is a block cipher, performing substitution-permutation operations on 128-bit blocks and employing keys of length 128 to 3200 bits (in 32-bit increments). Anubis works very much like Rijndael. Although submitted to the NESSIE project, it did not make the final cut for inclusion.
CLEFIA: Described in RFC 6114, CLEFIA is a 128-bit block cipher employing key lengths of 128, 192, and 256 bits (which is compatible with AES). The CLEFIA algorithm was first published in 2007 by Sony Corporation. CLEFIA is one of the new-generation lightweight block cipher algorithms designed after AES, offering high performance in software and hardware as well as a lightweight implementation in hardware.
FFX-A2 and FFX-A10: FFX (Format-preserving, Feistel-based encryption) is a type of Format Preserving Encryption (FPE) scheme that is designed so that the ciphertext has the same format as the plaintext. FPE schemes are used for such purposes as encrypting social security numbers, credit card numbers, limited size protocol traffic, etc.; this means that an encrypted social security number, for example, would still be a nine-digit string. FFX can theoretically encrypt strings of arbitrary length, although it is intended for message sizes smaller than that of AES-128 (2128 points). The FFX version 1.1 specification describes FFX-A2 and FFX-A10, which are intended for 8-128 bit binary strings or 4-36 digit decimal strings.
KLEIN: Designed in 2011, KLEIN is a lightweight, 64-bit block cipher supporting 64-, 80- and 96-bit keys. KLEIN is designed for highly resource constrained devices such as wireless sensors and RFID tags.
Light Encryption Device (LED): Designed in 2011, LED is a lightweight, 64-bit block cipher supporting 64- and 128-bit keys. LED is designed for RFID tags, sensor networks, and other applications with devices constrained by memory or compute power.
MARS: MARS is a block cipher developed by IBM and was one of the five finalists in the AES development process. MARS employs 128-bit blocks and a variable key length from 128 to 448 bits. The MARS document stresses the ability of the algorithm's design for high speed, high security, and the ability to efficiently and effectively implement the scheme on a wide range of computing devices.
Secure and Fast Encryption Routine (SAFER): A series of block ciphers designed by James Massey for implementation in software and employing a 64-bit block. SAFER K-64, published in 1993, used a 64-bit key and SAFER K-128, published in 1994, employed a 128-bit key. After weaknesses were found, new versions were released called SAFER SK-40, SK-64, and SK-128, using 40-, 64-, and 128-bit keys, respectively. SAFER+ (1998) used a 128-bit block and was an unsuccessful candidate for the AES project; SAFER++ (2000) was submitted to the NESSIE project.
Simon and Speck: Simon and Speck are a pair of lightweight block ciphers proposed by the NSA in 2013, designed for highly constrained software or hardware environments. (E.g., per the specification, AES requires 2400 gate equivalents and these ciphers require less than 2000.) While both cipher families perform well in both hardware and software, Simon has been optimized for high performance on hardware devices and Speckfor performance in software. Both are Feistel ciphers and support ten combinations of block and key size:
Skipjack: SKC scheme proposed, along with the Clipper chip, as part of the never-implemented Capstone project. Although the details of the algorithm were never made public, Skipjack was a block cipher using an 80-bit key and 32 iteration cycles per 64-bit block. Capstone, proposed by NIST and the NSA as a standard for public and government use, met with great resistance by the crypto community largely because the design of Skipjack was classified (coupled with the key escrow requirement of the Clipper chip).
TWINE: Designed by engineers at NEC in 2011, TWINE is a lightweight, 64-bit block cipher supporting 80- and 128-bit keys. TWINE's design goals included maintaining a small footprint in a hardware implementation (i.e., fewer than 2,000 gate equivalents) and small memory consumption in a software implementation. 2ff7e9595c
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